Given Danziger’s Claims Essay Example for Free

Given Danziger’s Claims Essay Given Danziger’s claims about ‘methodomorphic theories’ and given what you know of quantitative and qualitative research methods and psychology in general, what do you think would be the obstacles to attempt to break free of the ‘methodological circle’? Research methods in modern psychology offer a variety of methodological options for researchers to utilise. However, there are issues associated with all methods. This essay will examine problems associated with the ‘methodological cycle’, such as the monopolisation of statistical methods in social sciences. These ‘issues’ continue to be common practice in psychological research and present obstacles to moving towards a less rigid, constrained method of working. This will be followed by exploring approaches that move forward, towards a more fluid and inclusive method of empirical psychology, such as Theoretical Sampling in Grounded Theory and Relational metatheory. Danziger coined the term ‘methodological circle’, asserting that many psychological researchers adopt methods based on certain assumptions about the subject matter, which in turn â€Å"only produce observations which must confirm these assumptions† (Danziger, 1998, p 1). These assumptions continue to be common practice in current psychological research, and pose as a barrier to moving away from the ‘methodological circle’. Psychology as Pure Science Kuhn (1962) described ordinary science as involving discussion of problematic truth claims and is carried out within the context of implicitly shared metatheoretical frameworks; on the other hand â€Å"paradigms† involve discussion that challenges these metatheoretical frameworks themselves. Psychology operates within both of these frameworks. ‘Ordinary science’, also known as Scientism, involves uncritically accepting that science is both highly distinct from, and superior to, common sense and methods for identifying cultural patterns. However, factors that a social scientist may wish to study do involve facets that are not static and are defined by the context in which these facets operate. An example of this could be trauma. Trauma is viewed by individuals in Western society as a concept which individuals or a collective may suffer after a disrupting or distressing event. However, in less developed societies, such as in Rwanda which suffered mass genocide, no instances of trauma are reported (Alexander et al, 2004). Such examples highlight the problems presented by adopting a purely scientific (positivist) approach to a social phenomenon. In addition to this, it must be remembered that even though research will always endeavour to be as objective as possible they will, ultimately, use their common-sense knowledge of how social phenomena operate in order to define and measure these variables for precise investigation (Silverman, 1993). Psychologists who work purely in line with Scientism make the error to totally remove itself from common sense, rather than acknowledging and working with it, adopting, say, a more constructivist approach e.g. Conversation Analysis. Kock (1973) sums this up assumption beautifully by saying â€Å"The entire subsequent history of psychology can be seen as a ritualistic endeavor to emulate the forms of science in order to sustain the delusion that it already is a science (Kock, 1973, p. 66). Dependence on statistics The use of statistical methods in psychology can be said to have become â€Å"institutionalized† (Danziger, 1998, p. 4). According to Danziger, such institutionalization presents 3 main problems: 1. It assumes that statistical conclusions are the only means of providing reliable and valid results for interpreting and developing theory; 2. It asserts that certain rules and models are constant, and cannot be amended or updated by new evidence; 3. it postulates that methodology must lead theory formation, and not the other way round. Such facets create a rigid environment, which restricts ways in which the social scientist can explore social phenomena which focuses on interactions between figures rather than meanings of interactions. The importance of the meaning behind words was acknowledged as far back as Freud, who stated â€Å"In medics you are accustomed to see things†¦in psychoanalysis, alas, everything is different†¦Words were originally magic and to this day words have retained much of their ancient power†¦Words provoke affects and are in general the means of mutual influence among men† (Freud, 1918, p.12). This statement emphasises the importance in not just, say, overt behaviour in the amount of words one uses (i.e. numerical data) in an interview, but also what one says and the meaning behind those words (i.e. qualitative data). Artificial settings to measure real life Psychology is the science of the real life, cannot be manipulated in artificial models. In its attempt to become a ‘pure’ science, psychological research methods tend to prefer to use controlled, experimental procedures, where one variable is directly manipulated by another variable, controlling for any other influencing factors. While such methods offer detailed and reliable statistical information, details of social, political, economic, and historical contexts can be overlooked (Waitzkin, 1990). The variety within psychology Psychology is a broad discipline with a variety of approaches such as Social and Cognitive Psychology. Social Psychology looks at qualitative interactions in the real world between people, whereas Cognitive Psychology examines the thought processes involved in individual reasoning. The former cannot be effectively manipulated in a controlled laboratory experiment, whereas the latter can be. If one attempts to artificially create and conduct a social experiment which uses solely statistics as a method of obtaining and interpreting results, one will miss the rich data that can be gained through qualitative measurement, looking at meanings and interpretations. A degree of flexibility is required in theory construction and method development, taking care to acknowledge how applied the science is and the vast array of methodological procedures to adopt. Top down vs. bottom up When conducting empirical investigation in psychology, the research question should lead the methodology, not the other way round. However, with the dominant quantitative method, researchers tend impose theories on data and see whether or not the data supports the theory. Upon these results, the researchers either accept or reject their hypotheses, rather than further exploring any discrepancies. Alternatively, researchers who adopt a qualitative method allow the data drive the theory and design models and theory from data. This is unpopular with many as it can oversimplifying complex social phenomena. As we can see, both designs appear to be poloarised, with little or no room for convergence. Deductive vs. Inductive Another assumption that perpetuates the ‘methodological circle’ is the belief that quantitative methods always must use a hypothetico-deductive approach and qualitative methods an inductive approach. Again, this restricts the way in which researchers can work with their subject matter, and rather than adopting an antithetical approach, researchers should endeavor to focus on the rationale of the study and the research question. Realism vs. Idealism In a similar vain to the short discussion above, there is the determinist assumption that all quantitative researchers are realists and qualitative researchers are idealist in their approach. This assumption enforces more restrictions on the way research would be carried out. Indeed quantitative research could do well to accept more subjective and individual attitudes, as qualitative methods could with more objective, measurable approaches. Moving forward Acknowledging the obstacles above, I will now explore ways in which psychology can move forward, away from the ‘methodological circle’ towards an approach that recognises and embraces both ‘quantitative’ and ‘qualitative’ virtues. Such an approach should not be concerned with paradigmatic purism but more concerned with identifying effective ways of conceptualising and discovering answers to the research questions. Grounded Theory -Theoretical saturation and sampling When using Grounded Theory, researchers use Theoretical sampling until they reach ‘Theoretical saturation’, where researchers collect data â€Å"until (a) no new or relevant data seem to emerge regarding a category, (b) the category is well developed in terms of its properties and dimensions demonstrating variation, and (c) the relations among categories are well established and validated.† (Strauss Corbin, 1998, p. 212). Such a fluid and flexible approach provides a useful means in theory construction because it builds the theory as it evolves from incoming data, offering an alternate perspective on how the results are interpreted than the restrictive positivist, deductive approaches. Relational metatheory Relational metatheory offers a relational dialectical perspective in which interpretation (a more quantitative, positivist approach) and observation (a more qualitative, construstivist approach) are both acknowledged and used (Overton, 1998; 2003). Relationism metatheory acknowledges that there is interconnection between the person, culture and biology (Hase, 2000), which is a much more fluid and explorative method then a split metatheory (using only quantitative or qualitative). This results in more complex, self creating, self organising, self regulating and adaptive systems that function and develop in relation with sociocultural constructs. In conclusion, there is a range of obstacles researchers encounter when attempting to break free of the ‘methodological circle’. These include both theoretical considerations such as theory construction and practical considerations such as the dependence on statistics. In order to move away from these imposed restrictions, researchers should consider adopting a more inclusive, flexible approach such as Grounded Theory and Relational Metatheory. As Danzgier concludes we must overcome these problems associated with the ‘methodological circle’ in psychological research; if not â€Å"theory testing in psychology will be a matter of choosing among different versions of a theoretical position, the fundamental features of which are in fact beyond dispute.† (Danziger, 1985, p.13). References Alexander, J. C., Eyerman, R., Giesen, B., Smelser, N. J., Sztompka, P. (2004) Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity, University of California Press, CA Danziger, K. (1985) The methodological imperative in psychology. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 15, 1-13 Freud, S. (1918) The Complete Introductionary Lectures on Psychoanalsis, Alden Press, Oxford Hase, S. (2000) ‘Mixing methodologies in research’, NCVER conference, Coffs Harbour, April. Koch, S. (1963) Psychology: A Study Of a Science, (Koch, S. (Ed.). (1959-1963), McGraw-Hill, New York Kuhn, T. S. (1962) The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Overton, W. F. (2012) Paradigms in Theory Construction, (Eds L’Abate, L.) Springer; US. Silverman, D. (1993) â€Å"Beginning Research†. Interpreting Qualitative Data. Methods for Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction, Sage Publications, Londres Strauss, A. L. Corbin, J. M. (1998) Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory, Sage Publications, US Waitzkin, H. (1990) On Studying the Discourse of Medical Encounters, Medical Care. 28:6, 473-487

Pinpointing Tourettes Syndrome Essay -- Biology Essays Research Paper

Pinpointing Tourette's Syndrome Though Tourette's syndrome was first studied in the 1800's, it is an illness that has yet to be fully explained by any discipline. Presenting with muscular tics, some of which result in verbal utterances, Tourette's is a condition that is easily characterized. Yet its causes are not so easy to pin down. Though psychiatry and biology have been able to recognize roots other than the demonic possession once thought to cause Tourette's, there are few definitive, precise explanations of its etiology. As far as neurological diseases go, Tourette's is relatively common: between 2.9 and 4.5 children out of every 100,000 children have it, and that figure may be higher due to mild cases which go undiagnosed (1). The condition is much more prevalent in males than females, and Tourette's is most common present in young people - the condition often disappears in post-pubertal years. The onset of vocal tics most always succeeds motor tics, though most individuals with Tourette's eventually present both. Tics can sustained (and are then called tonic or dystonic), which can result in abnormal posture or gait for Tourette's patients. Behaviors associated with Tourette's include copropraxia, echopraxia (both motor behaviors), coprolalia, palilalia, and echolalia (all verbal) (2). The neurological causes of Tourette's are not fully understood. About half of patients have "non-localizing, so-called 'soft,' neurological findings suggesting disturbances in the body scheme and integration of motor control". When EEG's are performed on people with Tourette's, the results are often vagule abnormal, yet provide little concrete information to practitioners; the same is true of CAT scans. Additionally, these abnor... ...ic/tour.html 2. Macalaster College Behavioral Neuroscience Tourette's Syndrome Page http://www.macalester.edu/~psych/whathap/UBNRP/tourettes/ 3. Internet Mental Health http://www.mentalhealth.com/bookp40-gtor.html 4. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke - "What Cuases TS?" http://www.ninds.nih.gov/healinfo/disorder/tourette/tourette.htm 5. Department of Neurobiology, Baylor College of Medicine - Movement Disorders Research: Tetrabenazine Study http://www.bcm.edu/neurol/research/moved/moved3.html 6. HUM-MOLGEN [Human Molecular Genetics] European Server http://www.informatik.uni-rostock.de/HUM-MOLGEN/documents/abstracts.0049.html 7. "Tourette's Syndrome: A Model Neuropsychiatric Disorder" - Grand Rounds at the Clinical Center of the National Institutes of Health, http://neuro-www2.mgh.harvard.edu/TSA/medsci/model.html Pinpointing Tourette's Syndrome Essay -- Biology Essays Research Paper Pinpointing Tourette's Syndrome Though Tourette's syndrome was first studied in the 1800's, it is an illness that has yet to be fully explained by any discipline. Presenting with muscular tics, some of which result in verbal utterances, Tourette's is a condition that is easily characterized. Yet its causes are not so easy to pin down. Though psychiatry and biology have been able to recognize roots other than the demonic possession once thought to cause Tourette's, there are few definitive, precise explanations of its etiology. As far as neurological diseases go, Tourette's is relatively common: between 2.9 and 4.5 children out of every 100,000 children have it, and that figure may be higher due to mild cases which go undiagnosed (1). The condition is much more prevalent in males than females, and Tourette's is most common present in young people - the condition often disappears in post-pubertal years. The onset of vocal tics most always succeeds motor tics, though most individuals with Tourette's eventually present both. Tics can sustained (and are then called tonic or dystonic), which can result in abnormal posture or gait for Tourette's patients. Behaviors associated with Tourette's include copropraxia, echopraxia (both motor behaviors), coprolalia, palilalia, and echolalia (all verbal) (2). The neurological causes of Tourette's are not fully understood. About half of patients have "non-localizing, so-called 'soft,' neurological findings suggesting disturbances in the body scheme and integration of motor control". When EEG's are performed on people with Tourette's, the results are often vagule abnormal, yet provide little concrete information to practitioners; the same is true of CAT scans. Additionally, these abnor... ...ic/tour.html 2. Macalaster College Behavioral Neuroscience Tourette's Syndrome Page http://www.macalester.edu/~psych/whathap/UBNRP/tourettes/ 3. Internet Mental Health http://www.mentalhealth.com/bookp40-gtor.html 4. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke - "What Cuases TS?" http://www.ninds.nih.gov/healinfo/disorder/tourette/tourette.htm 5. Department of Neurobiology, Baylor College of Medicine - Movement Disorders Research: Tetrabenazine Study http://www.bcm.edu/neurol/research/moved/moved3.html 6. HUM-MOLGEN [Human Molecular Genetics] European Server http://www.informatik.uni-rostock.de/HUM-MOLGEN/documents/abstracts.0049.html 7. "Tourette's Syndrome: A Model Neuropsychiatric Disorder" - Grand Rounds at the Clinical Center of the National Institutes of Health, http://neuro-www2.mgh.harvard.edu/TSA/medsci/model.html

Preferred language style: English (U.S.) Essay

First, you should read these key documents relating to the definition and expression of usability. As you read, try to define for yourself as specifically as possible how you would assess usability. Remember, usability matters, because time matters — the argument for usability is heavily based on efficiency, not on aesthetics or people’s rights not to be put upon. Jakob Nielsen, Kara Pernice Coyne, and Marie Tahir, Make it Usable. PC Magazine 02. 06. 01. [Available at http://www. pcmag. com/article2/0,4149,33821,00. asp] Jakob Nielsen (2003) Usability 101: Introduction to Usability. Alert box, August 25 http://www. useit. com/alertbox/20030825. html The Web Style Guide (2nd Edition) available at http://www. webstyleguide. com/index. html Usability First [available at http://www. usabilityfirst. com/] Then comes the experiential component of the case. It shouldn’t take you to long and will give you a point of reference for what the debate is all about. Take the Web Usability Quiz — free and online at http://www. humanfactors. com/training/webquiz. asp You might actually want to try the quiz before you do the reading to check your prior knowledge. However, since your score is just between you and the machine, it`s up to you. But you`ll get more out of it if you do take the quiz. Then, in a 3-5 page paper, discuss the following questions: What do you believe are the appropriate criteria for assessing usability? Who should make such judgments? How should disagreements about usability be resolved? Usability plays a very important role in determining the efficiency of a website, and suggests the ability of the customer to use the website (Neilson, 2001). It is a quality component and determines the easiness and the convenience in using the website (Neilson, 2003). The customer should find the website user-friendly and interesting (Neilson, 2001). In this article, the importance of usability to websites is mentioned, but it could be applied to any area. As there are countless number of websites providing relevant information, people have several options. Hence, if a website is badly designed, it would suffer from not being visualized by the customer. The customer has to be involved during the construction stage itself to ensure that the website can be designed in the most appropriate manner. Another fact which should be noted in this regard is that a customer would not return to the website if it is bad, as a negative impression would already have been generated in the mind (Neilson, 2001). Before the website is launched, a sample of the potential customers should provide feedback. Studies have shown that these potential users have provided appropriate feedback which was utilized and helped to improve the quality of the website. Many web-designers have made huge amount of corrections within a very short period of time, and with a little investment after taking advice from the sample of the customers. Usually customers were lost right from the start of the homepage, were a registration of the customer was required (Neilson, 2001). Usability is also required for the website surviving in the market. Customers would leave the website at any given point of time, if it is difficult to use. Any information put in a difficult to read manner would also have the same consequence. It is very important that the website answers the questions of the user promptly (Neilson, 2003). Hence, the information presented should be very relevant and specific. In the industry of web designing, usability suggests that the designers are very efficient at the construction of a website. At the moment about 10 % of the construction of websites costs is spent on determining and improving the usability (Neilson, 2003). It is one of the areas a website production unit would be spending more compared to other quality areas (Neilson, 2003). There are several criteria for assessing usability. These include:- 1. Efficiency – The ability of the user to perform the activities mentioned, once they have learned the website. 2. Learnability – The ability of the user to perform the activities easily, once they are able to enter the website. 3. Satisfaction – The pleasure derived in using the website. 4. Errors – The chances of committing errors on the website, and the extent of these errors along with the ease in which they can be corrected. 5. Utility – The ability to function in an appropriate user-friendly manner, (Neilson, 2003). 6. Accessibility – The customer should be provided with access to appropriate information in the website. This is one of the most important criteria a website should follow (Lynch and Horton, 2002). 7. User-friendly design – The graphics and the texts available on the website should be balanced and prepared in a well-balanced manner. It should encourage good flow of information. The website should provide content and should be user-friendly for only the target audience group. The navigation aids present on the website should be accessible. Sometimes, the user may require additional information, and in such circumstances an access link should be available. This access links should always be functional (Lynch and Horton, 2002). 8. Relevant information – The website should provide relevant and current information. Sometimes, further details about the source from where the information is derived, would also be required. 9. Author’s name and the Credentials of the author – The website should be providing the author’s name and the credentials of the author, so that the customer can also weight the accuracy and genuineness of the information provided. Judgments to improve the usability should be made by the potential customers. They should be called in at the designer’s office. The correction would be occurring in a process, which include:- 1. Determine the objectives and the activities of the representative user – At first, the users should be told the objectives of the website and they should be given sufficient information to proceed on to the next task. Each representative tasks should be written on a separate page, and once the user finishes with one age, he/she could move on to the next page (Neilson, 2001). 2. The people testing the usability of the website should be placed in real-life instances. Their profile should suit that of the relevant audience the website wants to target. To test a particular site, 5 people should be utilized. The time each tester should spend ranges from 20 minutes to about 2 hours (Neilson, 2001). 3. The test sessions should be performed in a serene and a quiet environment. Usually, testing should be performed at one person at a time. However, if one tester cannot observe or disturb the other tester, the process can be done for several individuals at a time (Neilson, 2001). 4. The areas the testers experience certain difficulties should be observed immediately, and efforts should be made to correct them. The feedback and responses supplied by the testers is very important and should be utilized appropriately (Neilson, 2001). 5. Besides actually following the feedback and reactions of the user, several other issues can be sorted out by the designers to ensure that the usability of the website can be improved. Frequently, surveys may not convey precise information, and a lot depends on following the observations of the user. The information provided by a survey may frequently be misleading (Neilson, 2001). 6. During the process of testing, the designers should be quiet and observe what the representative user does or say. Anything said by the designers would affect the outcome of such a procedure (Neilson, 2003). Problems that could arise during testing:- 1. The results obtained from one user may be similar to another user. In such a circumstance, it would be better to conduct the entire procedure individually for each user or place them in rooms where one user cannot disturb another user (Neilson, 2003). 2. Frequently, the outcome of a testing may not be useful if people not belonging to the target group are selected for testing. In such a circumstance, it would be better to select individuals (at least five of them belonging to the target group) (Neilson, 2003). 3. Users should not be told anything during the testing. Instead most of the talking should be done by the user. If too much talking is done by the testers, the users would get influenced, and real-life simulation would not be possible (Neilson, 2003). References: Foraker Design. â€Å"Usability in Website and Software Design. † 2002. Usability First. 2 Jun 2007 http://www. usabilityfirst. com/ Human Factors. â€Å"Web Usability Quiz. † 1996. Human Factors. 2 Jun 2007 http://www. humanfactors. com/training/webquiz. asp Jakob Nielsen, Kara Pernice Coyne, and Marie Tahir, â€Å"Make it Usable. † 2001. PC Magazine. 2 Jun 2007 http://www. pcmag. com/article2/0,4149,33821,00. asp Jakob Nielsen, â€Å"Usability 101: Introduction to Usability. † 2003. Alert box. 2 Jun 2007 http://www. useit. com/alertbox/20030825. html Patrick Lynch and Sarah Horton. â€Å"The Web Style Guide, Second Edition. † Web Style Guide. 2 Jun 2007 http://www. webstyleguide. com/index. html

Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury - 904 Words

Living in a world with no free thought would be bland as cardboard. But, if that cardboard illuminated with fire, would it have more meaning than it did before? The answer is yes. In the novel Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, the main character, Montag, finds much meaning behind the simple element of fire. The symbol of fire is used to represent how Montag changes himself and his ideas and thoughts about fire throughout the novel. At first, Montag views fire as destructive, but enjoys burning because he sees the power of his job as a fireman. After meeting Clarisse, Montag begins to understand how fire can be seen as comfort. In the end, Montag realizes that fire can be cleansing and can be symbolic of hope and passion. Montag learns many things through his journey to find who he really is. Montag is first intrigued with the desolation left by fire. â€Å"While the books went up in sparkling whirls and blew away on a wind turned dark with burning† (Bradbury 2). Montag destroys the one thing that could bring him clear thoughts mindlessly. He even finds joy in destroying the books because of the mysterious ways in which fire burnt. â€Å"...he [Montag] would feel the fiery smile still gripped by his face muscles, in the dark. It never went away, that smile, it never ever went away, as long as he remembered† (Bradbury 2). Burning gives Montag a sense of accomplishment, since there is really no other way to achieve success in a mental sense. He finds joy in the work he does, even thoughShow MoreRelatedFahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury719 Words   |  3 PagesThe flash point of paper, or the temperature at which paper will burst in flames, is 451 degrees Fahrenheit. In Fahrenheit 451, written by Ray Bradbury, the main character, Guy Montag, is a â€Å"firemanâ⠂¬  in a futuristic society where he and his coworkers start fires, rather than put them out. Books are banned and burned, along with the owner of the book’s house and sometimes even the owner of the book, upon discovery. Technology has taken over in a sense that social interaction between the average personRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury1952 Words   |  8 Pagesis clearly displayed in the plight of Ray Bradbury’s novel about a dystopian American society, Fahrenheit 451, which contains many ideas and bits of content that some people believed should be censored. In fact, one of the reasons that this novel was censored for displaying the dangers of censorship, which is both extremely ironic, and telling as to where this society is going. Thanks to several distributors and oversensitive parents and teachers, Fahrenheit 451 has been banned in many schools overRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury954 Words   |  4 Pages In Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, the author uses allegory (often misinterpreted by readers) to show the dangers of mass media consumption and the decline of reading traditional media. Many readers draw incorrect conclusions (lessons learned) from the book due to how generally the book applies its theme. Government censorship, though an important topic, is not the intended focus of the novel Fahrenheit 451. Finally, Bradbury’s original message of the book shows the beauty of traditional media andRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury1592 Words   |  7 PagesWhen writing the introduction to Fahrenheit 451, author Neil Gaiman stated that â€Å"ideas--written ideas--are special. They are the way we transmit our stories and our thoughts from one generation to the next. 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The old lady was caught preserving books in her home. Firemen including Montag were ordered to burn the books. The old lady refused to leave her books, so she too was burned. She bravely gave an allusion as her last words, â€Å"Play the man,’ she said, ‘Master Ridley.’ Something, somethingRead MoreFahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury818 Words   |  4 PagesFAHRENHEIT 451 BY RAY BRADBURY Important People in Montag’s Life In Partical Fulfillment Of English 2 Ms Irina Abramov By Helen Hernandez November 9, 2012 â€Å"There are worse crimes than burning books. One of them is not reading them† -Ray Bradbury. In the past there were events that affected book writers. People will get together to burn books because they thought it was inappropriate or they were against their literature. Montag is a fireman in a futuristic society who would startRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury863 Words   |  4 PagesThe novel, Fahrenheit 451 was written by Ray Bradbury and it took place in the dystopian future. 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